He aha nā carbohydrates kūlana o carbohydrates i loko o ke kanaka kino

Nine waiwai o na keena hana i na meaola ola hilinaʻi kuhikuhi ma ka helu o ke kalapona nā'ātoma aha mai i ka 50% ma ke kaupaonaʻana maloo. Kalapona nā'ātoma i ka papa kuhikuhiE ke aloha 'ona: nā polokina, nukelea nāʻakika, lipids a me carbohydrates. Ka hope pūʻulu ka loaʻa o carbonyl hui a me ka wai e like me ka haʻilula (Ch ₂ O) _n, kahi N Ua like no a oi aku mamua o ekolu. Ma waho kalapona, me hydrogen a me ka oxygenation, ma ka lātoma hiki nā phosphorus, naikokene, ka luaipele. Ma kēia 'atikala, huli aku mākou i ke kūlana o carbohydrates i loko o ke kino o ke kanaka, e like me nā' ano o ko lākou 'ole, ka waiwai a me ka hana.

Mea Maluna

Kēia pae o i huiʻia ma ka biochemistry e puunaueia i ekolu papa: na mea pulapula o ke (monosaccharides), polymeric i huiʻia me ka glycosidic linkage - oligosaccharides a me biopolymers o kiʻekiʻe hakakino kaumaha - polysaccharides. Ka luna-i oleloia papa o ka waiwai i loaʻa i loko o kekahi mau aeeaʻAno. No ka laʻana, ma laila nō monakō koko a me ka pia i kanu hale, glycogen - i loko o kanaka hepatocytes, a me aeea pa o fungi, ka chitin - i loko o ka pā iwi arthropods. A pau o ka luna waiwai - i carbohydrates. Ke kūlana o nā carbohydrates i loko o ke kino o ke ao. Ka mea, - i ka papa kuhikuhi wale mai ana o ka ikaika no ka nui keʻano o ka hanaʻana o ka mea kanu keena, koʻohune, holoholona a me nā kānaka.

monosaccharides

Ua ka mau haʻilula C _N H _{2 N} O _N, a ua māheleʻia i loko o nā pūʻulu ke kaumaha ma muli o ka helu o ke kalapona nā'ātoma i loko o ka lātoma: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, a no laila, ma luna o. Me kekahi hapa o ka halepaahao organelles a me cytoplasm o ka poe noonoo ole o nā mahi kō i mau māhele kŰia ke kau: laina a me ka hoʻopoepoe. Ma ka hihia mua, i pili i ke kalapona nā'ātoma i kekahi i kekahi Via covalent makaukau na kaula paa a me ka sigma ano paa lou, i loko o ka lua o ka hihia i ka kalapona iwi ua i paa hou mai la, a hiki i ai manamana ai. No ka hoʻoholo 'ana i ka ke kūlana o carbohydrates i loko o ke kino, noonoo i ka loa, he pono ole o ia - ka pentose a me ka hexose.

Isomers: monakō koko a me ka fructose

Ka mea, i ka ia hakakino haʻilula C ₆ H ₁₂ O _6, akā, nāʻano likeʻole o mall nā lātoma. Mākou i hea aku mamua o ka iniiaiie kūlana o carbohydrates i ola meaola - i ka ikehu. Ka mea ma luna ona i wāwahiʻia ia ma ka halepaahao. I ka hopena o ke kala o ka ikehu (17.6 kJ o kekahi gram o ka monakō koko). Eia kekahi, 36 nā lātoma o ATP ua synthesized. monakō koko decomposition ia lŘlŘ ma na membranes (cristae) mitochondria a ho i ke kaulahao o enzymatic reactions - ka Krebs pōʻaiapuni. He mea nui i kekahi hapa o ka dissimilation e kahe ana ma na keena a pau o heterotrophic eukaryotic meaola.

Monakō koko ua hoi i hanaʻia i loko o myocytes mammals aie i ka splitting ma Muscle glycogen. I ka wā e hiki mai, ka mea, ua hoʻohana 'ia e like me ka hiki wawe ka decomposable waiwai me ka hoʻolako' keena me ka ikehu - keia mea i ka papa kuhikuhiE kūlana o carbohydrates i loko o ke kino. Mea kanu i phototrophs a kū kaʻawale kuahene monakō koko i kāʻamaʻai. Mau reactions i kapaia Kelvin pōʻaiapuni. Ua hoʻomakaʻia ka i carbon dioxide a me ka acceptor - ribolozodifosfat. Hoʻololi kemikala o ka monakō koko ia lŘlŘ i loko o ka'ōpū mai chloroplast. Fructose, me ka like hakakino haʻilula me monakō koko, iloko ona i kakauia ma ka lātoma he ooieoeiiaeuiiai pūʻulu o ketones. 'Aʻole' o kaʻono ma mua o monakō koko, a me nā mea i loko o ka meli, a me ka wai o ka hua a me ka hua. Penei, ka liluwelo kūlana o carbohydrates i loko o ke kino kupapaʻu i kuhikuhi i loko o kona hoʻohana like me ka kokololio kahi o ka ikehu.

Ke kūlana o nā kūpuna i loko o ka pentose

E kekahi hui o monosaccharides mākou noʻonoʻo - ribose a me ka deoxyribose. Lākou kū hoʻokahi waiho i loko o ka mea i ka mea, i kekahi o na polymers - nukelea nāʻakika. No nā meaola, me 'ole-ke kelepona hele ola ano, DNA a me RNA nō i ka papa kuhikuhiE nā moku halihali mokulele o hereditary' ike. Ribose ua komo i loko o ka RNA lātoma a me ka deoxyribose nucleotides i kakauiaʻi ma DNA. Nolaila, i ka liluwelo kūlana o carbohydrates i loko o ke kanaka kino o ia ka mea i komo i loko o ke kahua o nā huahelu o nā kūpuna mai - na nā'ōewe a me chromosomes.

Maikaʻi loa pentose i loaʻa ka aldehyde pae a me ka laha ana ma ke kanu aupuni e xylose (hookomoia i kumu a me ka anoano), alpha-arabinose (waiho i loko o ka nui aʻe o ka pōhaku hua laau). Ke'ī mai, i ka puunaue, a me ka liluwelo kūlana o carbohydrates i loko o ke kino o ke kiekie ae kanu i nui kupono.

He aha ka oligosaccharides

Inā residues o na nā lātoma o monosaccharides, e like me monakō koko a fructose, ua hoʻopiliʻia covalent paa ana, ka mea i hanaʻia oligosaccharides - polymeric carbohydrates. Ke kūlana o nā carbohydrates i loko o ke kino o nā mea kanu a me nā holoholona e lauwili. He oi loa oiaio o disaccharides. I ka loa a pau mawaena o lakou, i sucrose, lactose, maltose a me ka trehalose. Penei, sucrose, ole ike me kō 'ole beet kōpaʻa, maluna olaila i na mea kanu, e like me ka pāʻoihana a me ka waiho waho i loko o kā lākou mau aʻa paha anei. Hydrolysis o ka mea i hana lātoma o ka monakō koko a me ka fructose. Waiu kōpaʻa, lactose mea o ka holoholona kumu. No kekahi kanaka, he mea intolerance a hiki i keia waiwai me ka hyposecretion hou pili'ūhū lactase, a mai hemo mai ia i ka waiū kō galactose a me ka monakō koko. Ke kūlana o ke ola ana o ka meaola like carbohydrates. No ka laʻana, ka mea disaccharide trehalose, haku o nā monakō koko residues, hapa o ka hemolymph o crustaceans, punawelewele, nā mea kolo. Ua hoi ia lŘlŘ ma na keena o ka fungi a me kekahi līoho.

Kekahi disaccharide - Maltose, a malt kōpaʻa, ua hookomoia ma caryopses o ka bale a me ka rai i loko o kā lākou germination, ia mea he lātoma iloko olaila o elua monakō koko residues. Ua ua hana ma ka hoʻopöʻino 'ia o kaʻai a me ka holoholona pia. Ma ka uuku liʻiliʻi o nā kānaka a me nā mammals maltose a pipili ma ka'ūhū - maltase. I kona wa e kaawale aku ma pancreatic wai i Konakele. Pathology, kena ae la ia e intolerance i kaʻai pia glycogen 'ole nō hoʻi nā huahana. Ma keia hihia, he hanaʻai, a ua hou i kaʻai o ka'ūhū wale.

Complex carbohydrates ma ke ano maoli

Ka mea, ua nui loa he ākea, o ka oi aku i loko o ka'ōpū i honua, i biopolymers a i ke kiʻekiʻe hakakino kaumaha. No ka laʻana, o ka pia ka mea, o 800 000, a ma kaʻiʻo pepa - 1 600 000. Na polysaccharides oko i loko o ka haku mele 'ana o nā monomers, polymerization degere, a me ke kaula ka loa. Akä naÿe i na mea o nā mahi kō a me oligosaccharides a i ka haiia wailana i ka wai, a i ka mea ala ono, polysaccharides hydrophobic a me ka tasteless. E noonoo i ke kūlana o carbohydrates i loko o ke kanaka kino, e like me he kumu hoohalike o ke glycogen - holoholona pia. Ua Ua synthesized mai ka monakō koko, a hoahu iho la ma hepatocytes a skeletal Muscle keena, ma kona maʻiʻo ua oi palua luna ma mua i loko o ke akepaʻa. Ma ke kahua o ka glycogen mea i hiki o subcutaneous momona, neurocytes a me macrophages. Kekahi polysaccharide - nō pia mea he huahana o ka kāʻamaʻai, a ua hua mai i loko o plastids o ka uliuli.

Mai ka loa hoʻomaka o ke kanaka noho maikai ana, i ke kumu nui mai ana o ka pia, he waiwai ulu: ka laiki, uala, palaoa. Lakou mau nō i ke kumu o kaʻai o ka uie kekahi hapanui hewahewa ana o kanaka ma ka Honua. Ia mea ke kumu ia mea ai waiwai carbohydrates. Ke kūlana o nā carbohydrates i loko o ke kino o, e like me mākou i ike, i loko o kā lākou palapala noi me ka mana-pololi a me ka koke digestible ke aloha mea.

Aia o kekahi pūʻulu o polysaccharides i nā monomers hyaluronicʻakika residues. Ka mea, i kapaʻia pectins, aʻo ka hale pono o ke kanu keena. Pakahi aku la ia waiwai i loko o ia kaha onionio ohia, beetʻiʻo pepa. Ke kelepona hele waiwai pectins hooponopono intracellular puʻe - turgor. Ma ka confectionery hana, ka mea i hoʻohana me gelling a me ka hanaʻia naʻe konohiki i loko o ka? Iecaianoaaiiie o kiʻekiʻe-e like aiʻano likeʻole marshmallow a me ka jelly. Nāʻai hoʻohana like biologically hana 'ona ua maikaʻi deducing toxins mai ka AeXIeAaOIePEAaI.

He aha ka glycolipids

O ka hana hoihoi pae o ka luna 'i huiʻia o nā carbohydrates a me nā bipi kūpaluʻia i loko o ka'emi'aʻaʻa. Ua ninoieo o ka lolo, a me ka spinal kaula o mammals. no hoi Glycolipids i loaʻa i loko o ka haku mele 'ana o ka halepaahao membranes. No ka laʻana, ka pae'āina koʻohune ma aeea-aeea hui 'ana. Kekahi o kēia mau huina lakou mea i antigens ( 'ona e huai ae Landsteiner AB0 koko pae nenoaiu). Ma na keena o ka holoholona, mea kanu a me nā kānaka, koe glycolipids, i keia manawa, a me ka okoa momona nā lātoma. Ka mea, hana kuhikuhi ikehu kuleana pili i. Ma ka cleavage o kekahi gram o ka momona 38,9 kJ o ka ikehu ua hookuu. 'ole hana (hapa o ka halepaahaoʻili lahilahi) i lipids mea i wehewehe aku. Pela, ua mālamaʻia e carbohydrates a me nā bipi kūpaluʻia kēia mau hana. Lākou kūlana ma ke kino ka'āina kiʻekiʻe.

Ke kūlana o nā carbohydrates a me lipids i loko o ke kino

I kanaka a me ka holoholona keena hiki ke malama interconversions o polysaccharides a me nā bipi kūpaluʻia 'ia me ka hopena o ka pūnao. Epekema a me nutritionists ike ia excessiveʻai ana o starchyʻaiʻo ia i ka hoʻomāhuahua o ka momona. Inā he kanaka i kāna hana a na pancreas ma ka hua'ōlelo o ka hoʻokaʻawale 'ole amylase hiki aku ai i ka sedentary Aloha Hawaii, ke kaumaha i e nui loa. He waiwai e hoomanao i ua hoʻohioloʻiaʻano nui ka carbohydrate-waiwaiʻai i loko o ka duodenum i loko o monakō koko. Ua kemu na capillaries o ka villi o ka liʻiliʻi naʻau liʻiliʻi, a waiho i loko o ke ake, a nāʻiʻo me glycogen. Ka hou mālama nui e loaa hou mai o ka 'ona i loko o ke kino, ka mea nui ka mea, ua Wāwahi i loko o monakō koko. ka mea, ua laila, hoʻohana 'ia e like me ka iniiaiie keena, i ka hana mikiʻala mea. hoʻolako kēia 'ike he pane i ka ninau o ke kūlana hookani ma carbohydrates, i ke kanaka kino.

Meaning o glycoproteins

I huiʻia o kēia pae o ka 'ona poe e ka luna' carbohydrate + kumuʻiʻo. Ka mea, i kapaʻia glycoconjugates. Kēia lāʻau lapaʻau kino, hormones,ʻili lahilahi 'ole. Ua hookupaa Latest biochemical haʻawina i ina glycoproteins hoʻomaka i ka hoʻololi 'ana i kona kanaka (maoli)' ole, e hele aku ai i ke kūpono 'ana o kēia mau luna' maʻi e like me asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, Ka maʻi 'aʻai. Ke kūlana o nā glycoconjugates i loko o ka pūnao o ka halepaahao mea kiʻekiʻe. No ka laʻana, interferons inhibit ka multiplication o nā mea hoʻomaʻi, immunoglobulins hoomalu nae lakou i ka kino e ku e pathogens. ke koko nā polokina i no a hiki i keia pae ana o 'ona. Ka mea, i ka hoomalu ana a me ka buffering ka waiwai. A pau o ka mea ma luna oihana ua hookupaa iho la ia ma ka mea i ka physiological kūlana o carbohydrates i loko o ke kino, ua like a me ka'āina nui.

Where a pehea carbohydrates i hana

Major mai ana o ka poe noonoo ole a me ka luna 'o nā mahi kō - he omaomao kanu i: ka līoho, kiekie spore, gymnosperms a me flowering. I mai la lakou a pau iloko o ka pigment chlorophyll keena. He He hapa o ka thylakoid - hale o chloroplasts. Russian nä känaka 'epekema KA Timiryazev aʻo i ke kaʻina hana o ka kāʻamaʻai, kūpono ana ma ke kahua carbohydrates. Ke kūlana o nā carbohydrates i loko o ke kino o ka mea kanu o ka hoʻomāhuahua o ka pia i loko o ka hua, a me na anoano pu u kukui, 'o ia hoʻi, i loko o ka vegetative nā loko. kāʻamaʻaiʻano papa hana meaʻano huikau, a he o ka moʻo o enzymatic reactions e lawe wahi nā loko o ka malamalama, a me ka pouli. Monakō koko ua synthesized mai i carbon dioxide ma lalo o ka hana ana o nā'ūhū. Heterotrophic meaola hoʻohana uliuli mea kanu me ke kumu o ka ai, a me ka ikehu. Penei, ka mea kanu i ka mua loulou i loko o nā mea a pau ai na kaulahao , a ua kapaʻia nā hoʻohua.

Ke keena o heterotrophic meaola carbohydrates synthesized ma ka malimali auwai a (agranular) endoplasmic reticulum. A laila, ka mea i hoʻohana me ka ikaika a me ka hale i nā puke. I kanu keena carbohydrates aiiieieoaeuii i hanaʻia i loko o ka Golgi, a laila, e hele i ka ho okumu i kekahi cellulosic aeea pā pōhaku. Ma ke kaʻina hana o ka digestion hui holoholona vertebrates waiwai i loko o carbohydrates, hapa 'ia' hoʻohioloʻia i loko o ka waha a me ka'ōpū. Main dissimilation hookahi reactions ana i loko o ka duodenum. E like me ka mea kū pancreatic wai i loaʻa ka amylase'ūhū e pili mai pia i ka monakō koko. Like i ka la mua, monakō koko ka paka i loko o ke koko i loko o ka poe uuku a me ka naʻau liʻiliʻi ua hohola ma luna o nā mea a pau keena. Eia ka mea, ua hoʻohana 'ia e like me ka ikehu kumu, a he mall mea. Kēia wehewehe i ke kūlana e carbohydrates pâʻani i loko o ke kino.

Nadmembrannye eiiieaenu heterotrophic keena

Ka mea, e ano o nā holoholona a me nā fungi. Ke Nine Inch haku mele 'ana a me ka hakakino hui o kēia mau hale i na poe e hui e like me lipids, nā polokina a me carbohydrates. Ke kūlana o nā carbohydrates i loko o ke kino, - ka mea, ua komo i loko o ka ikehu pūnao a me ka hale membranes. I kanaka a me ka holoholona aeee i ka kekahi mall ke keʻena i kapa glycocalyx. Kēia lahilahiʻilikai haku o glycolipids a me glycoproteins pili me ka cytoplasmicʻili lahilahi. Ua 'oi aku ka pololei loulou me ka waho o ke keena. Eia hele mai i ka pokole o stimuli a me extracellular digestion. Ma muli o ia kā lākou carbohydrate iwi keena pili ana i kēlā me kēia 'ē aʻe ho okumu i ka lole. O kŰia ua kapaia mea pīlali. pū mākou hookui aku i ka "huelo" o ka carbohydrate nā lātoma loaʻa ma luna o ka halepaahaoʻili, a ua kuhikuhi ia ma interstitial loli.

Kekahi pūʻulu o heterotrophic meaola - fungi i hoʻomākaukauʻia nō hoʻi i kaʻili kai, i kapaia o ka halepaahao pa. Ua nā eiiieaena pulapula o ke - chitin, glycogen. Kekahi mau 'ano o ka fungi i pihaʻi me wailana carbohydrates e like me trehalose, kapa Fish kōpaʻa.

Ma unicellular holoholona e like me ciliates,ʻilikai - pellicle no hoi kekahi mau oligosaccharide eiiieaenu me nā polokina, a lipids. Kekahi poe noonoo ole pellicle lahilahi lakou e maona ai a 'aʻole i ole i kekahi loli ma ke kino shape. Akā, i loko o kekahi mea, thickens a lilo ikaika me kapa kila, e hali ana i ka aiiay kuleana pili i.

Plant aeea pa

Ua hoi he nui dala o carbohydrates, o ka oi aku kelulose ohi like laulau o olona. Mau hale a hana i ka wahi ponoi, bapetizo i loko o ka'ōpū mai colloidal. Ua he kuhikuhi o oligosaccharides a me polysaccharides. Ke aeea paia o kaʻai aeee ke lignificated. Ma keia hihia, ua piha i ka hakahaka ma waena o nā kaola a me nā kelulose carbohydrates - lignin. Ua hoʻokāʻoi aʻe ana i ka kākoʻo hana o ka halepaahaoʻili lahilahi. Pinepine, loa i loko o perennial ligneous kanu, ka mea mawaho, ahu iho oia hoi o ka kelulose lole komoʻuʻuku nona momona-e like ka waiwai - suberin. Ka mea, ua ālai 'ka ingress o ka wai i loko o ka mea kanu'aʻaʻa, no laila, na ka hp'pnphp keena hoʻomaka koke make aku a ua uhiʻia i ka ahu iho la ka Cork.

I ka hōʻuluʻulu manaʻo, ke ike ia i loko o ka mea kanu aeea paia i pili loa ua hoʻopili carbohydrates a me nā bipi kūpaluʻia. Lākou kūlana ma ke kino phototrophs underestimated hope glycolipid pono i ke kōkua pūʻia mai, a aiiay kuleana pili i. Mākou e hoʻopaʻa haʻawina i kekahiʻano o carbohydrates, i ho'ākāka 'ia i ke Monera aupuni o ka meaola. Kēia nā prokaryotes, e like me koʻohune. Lākou aeea paia he he carbohydrate - murein. Ke kaumaha ma muli o ka ili honua 'ole o ka nakeke ua maheleia i koʻohune Gram-maikaʻi a me ka gram-io.

Ka 'ole o ka lua o ka pūʻulu Ua oi luna'. Mau koʻohune i mau papa: ea a me kaʻoʻoleʻa. Ka mua kekahi mau mucopolysaccharides, e laʻa me murein. Kona nā lātoma i ke ano o ka nui pukapuka hale, ho okumu i ka mea hōʻikeʻikeʻuʻuku a puni ka mea koʻohune halepaahao. Ka lua o ka papa ninoieo o peptidoglycan - hui polysaccharides a me nā polokina.

ke kelepona hele pa lipopolysaccharides ae koʻohune, e hoopili aku i ka paa mau substrates, e like me ka niho enamel a eukaryotic aeeaʻili lahilahi. Eia hou kekahi, glycolipids paipai mea pīlali o ka mea koʻohune aeee i kekahi i kekahi. Pela i hanaʻia, e laʻa me, streptococci kaula huiwaina staphylococci, eia hoi, kekahi laha 'o prokaryotes i hou mucosa - peplos. Ua loaʻa i loko o kona haku mele 'ana o nā polysaccharides a me ka maʻalahi lukuia e ka hana pāhawewe a ma ka hui' ana me kekahi mau Nine Inch e like me antibiotics.