Puaʻa hiwa: ka waiwai, me nā hale, pa apŘ a me examples

Paa kahea aku ia mau waiwai i ka poe hiki ke ho okumu i ke kino, a i ka buke. O ke kinowai a me nā kinoea, ka mea, ua hookoaiaʻe e lākou mau helehelena. Nā puaʻa hiwa hoomau i ke kinona o ke kino ma muli o ia ka mea i kā lākou mau (particles) e i hiki ke neʻe ka uku ole ia. Ka mea, oko i loko o kā lākou nuʻa, ductility, uila conductivity a me ka waihoʻoluʻu. Ka mea, i loaʻa'ē aʻe waiwai. No ka laʻana, ka hapanui o kēia mau waiwai i maule i paio hahana maoli nō, e loaa i ke kinowai hoʻopiha moku'āina. Kekahi o ia ka wā enaena koke gasified (sublimed). Akā, aia no kekahi poe e hoohiolo no ia i loko o nā 'ona.

Ano o ka puaʻa hiwa

A pau ka'ā ua māheleʻia i loko o nā pūʻulu.

1. Amorphous, ma a na (particles) kanaka i hoonohonoho randomly. Ma na olelo e ae, ka mea e mai i ka ike (i ho'ākāka ')' ole. Mau puaʻa hiwa hiki e hoʻoheheʻeʻia i loko o ka kekahi hoakaka ia ana wela wā mawaena. Ka loa, he pono ole o kēia nā aniani a me ka kēpau.
2. He aniani la, a ma ka huli e subdivided i loko o 4 ke ano:'ātoma, hakakino, ionic, mea hao. Nā (particles) e ke aupuni 'wale nō i loko o ka kekahi kumu,ʻo ia i loko o ke aniani puka olu oia. Kona anahonua i loko o kekahi waiwai ke oko a nui.

Mea pōaka puaʻa hiwa lanakila ma amorphous i loko o ko lakou helu.

Ano o ka mea pōaka puaʻa hiwa

Ma kokoke pau paa waiwai i ka mea pōaka 'ole. Ka mea, oko i loko o kā lākou 'ole. Ma kona mea pōaka puka olu oia i aka wahi EIAaAO likeʻole (particles) a me Nine Inch. He ma e like me ia, a me kā lākou mau inoa ka mea, e loaʻa. ʻano kēlā me he ho'ākāka 'ia i waiwai no ka mea,:

• Ke'ātoma aniani puka olu oia i paa (particles) ua hoʻopiliʻia e ka covalent hoopaa. Ua Ua kapa hoʻohanohano ma kona ikaika. Manawa a hiki i keia, ua 'ona i ke kiʻekiʻe mahele heheʻe i ka wahi a me ka baila aʻela i. Kēiaʻano nā pōaka a me ka daimana.
• Ma ka puka olu oia i aniani o ka hakakino hoopaa ma waena o na (particles) ua wehewehe aku ma kona nawaliwali. Waiwai o kēia 'ano e wehewehe aku ma ka oluolu o ka heheʻe, a baila aʻela i. Ka mea, i wehewehe aku ma ka volatility, ma muli o ia a i ka kekahiʻala. Mau puaʻa hiwa i ka hau, kōpaʻa. Ka noi o nā lātoma i loko o ka'ā o kēiaʻano i wehewehe aku ma ko lakou hope.
• Ke ionic aniani puka olu oia i loko o nā aka wahi 'ē aʻe mau (particles) i hoopiiia ikaika a negatively. Ka mea i paa ma ka electrostatic attraction. Kēia puka olu oia iʻano i koe ma alkalis, paʻakai, walaʻauʻana oxides. He nui waiwai o kēia 'ano mea hana wailana i loko o ka wai. Ma muli o ka hala loa o ka ikaika hoopaa ma waena o nā Ion i refractory. Kokoke a pau o ia i odorless, no ka mea, e wehewehe aku ma ka 'ole-volatility. Waiwai me ka ionic puka olu oia i hikiʻole, e hoʻomaka uila pono, e like me ka ko lakou haku mele 'ana i noa electrons. A typical laʻana o ka paa ion - paʻakai. Oia ke aniani puka olu oia i haawi ia brittle. Keia mea aie a hiki i ka nui, e hoike ana i kekahi o kona naeaeaa hiki i ion repulsive koa.
• Ka mea hao aniani puka olu oia wale Nine Inch Ion e noho i loko o nā aka wahi, olelo ikaika mai, papa mai. Ma waena o ia ma laila, ua noa electrons ma i hele maikaʻi thermal a me ka uila ikehu. I mea no ke aha la i kekahi mea hiki ke hooheheeia kekahi hiʻona e like me conductivity.

General manaÿo o ka paa

Ka'ā a me nā waiwai - ka mea, kokoke i ka mea hookahi. Kēia mau hua'ōlelo haawiia i kekahi o ka 4 Huipuia, o ka aggregation. Puaʻa hiwa i ka paa ke kino a me ka ano o ka thermal noi o nā'ātoma. Ka hope e oscillations liʻiliʻi kokoke i ka equilibrium nā kūlana hana. Branch o ka 'epekema Hana me ke ao o ka haku mele' ana a me na 'ole, haawiia keia i like paa-moku'āina ke kālaikūlohea. Aia nō me kekahi mau wahi o ka 'ike' ole i loko o ia mau waiwai. Hoʻololi i ke kinona ma mawaho ololi a me ka noi kapa mechanics o deformable kino.

Aie i ka waiwai o ka puaʻa hiwa, ka mea, i ua hoʻohana i nā oaoieei-manaʻo hana ma ka ke kanaka. Loa pinepine i ke kumu o ko lākou pono, he waiwai e like me ka paakiki, ka leo, nuipa a, elasticity, plasticity, brittleness. Hoikehonua, 'epekema hiki ke hoʻohana' a i hiki ke 'akomi i wale i loko o ke keʻena hoʻokolohua' ē aʻe ano o ka puaʻa hiwa.

He aha ka aniani

Nā pōaka - he paa kino waiho i loko o ka kekahi mea (particles). Kēlā me kēia Nine Inch i kona iho 'ole. Kona nā'ātoma i hana i ka ekolu-dimensionally papa'āweʻaweʻa kemika stacking i kapaia o puka olu oia. Paa waiwai i he okoa 'ole symmetry. Paa mea pōaka moku'āina ua noʻonoʻo i ka pilina paʻa, no ka mea, i ka palena iki nui o Loaʻaʻia ikehu.

Ke uie kekahi hapanui hewahewa o ÷ haku mea (maoli) he ana o ka helu nui o randomly aʻo i kaʻoihana kanaka mānoanoa (crystallites). Na waiwai i kapaia polycrystalline. Mau nā oaoieei-oka a pau a me nā mea hiki ke hooheheeia, e like me ka ka hailonaʻana o nā pōhaku. Monocrystalline kapaia maoli paha kemikala hookahi nā pōaka.

Ma ka hapanui o na mea paa kino i hana mai i ka moku'āina o ka wai a pae, i hoʻouna 'ia e hehee ai pāʻoihana. I kekahi manawa, ua loko ka mea, mai ka gaseous moku'āina. Kēia kaʻina ua kapaia crystallization. Mahalo i ka iao? Iiaie oaoieei holomua o ka mahi kaʻina hana (hoʻololi kemikala) o kekahi mau waiwai i lawe i ka hanalima me ka unahiʻole. Ka hapa nui o na nā pōaka mai i ka aoao maoli ÿano o kekahi mau polyhedron. Lākou nui like 'ole oko a kaiāulu. No ka laʻana, ma kona ano maoli pōaka (pōhaku aniani) ke kaupaona mai i ka haneri o kilograms, a me diamonds - mai i kekahi mau nā huna.

Ma amorphous puaʻa hiwa, na nā'ātoma i ka ikaika oscillation puni randomly ke aupuni 'o ka papa. Ka mea, hoahu kekahi pōkole-huahelu mea, akā,ʻaʻohe lōʻihi-huahelu. O ke kumu ho i ka mea i i hoonohonoho lākou nā lātoma i ka mamao i e hoohalikeia me kā lākou nui hiki. Ka loa, he pono ole ko kakou ola laʻana o keia ma ka mea o ka paa glassy moku'āina. Amorphous mea pinepine i manao like kekahi kinowai me ka (viscosity) infinitely nui. I ka manawa o ka crystallization mea kekahi manawa no ka nui i ka i hōʻike 'ia.

I ka luna waiwai o kēia mau waiwai e ia hanana. Amorphous puaʻa hiwa i manaoia lolelua no ka mea, ma luna o ka manawa hiki ke hele i loko o ka mea pōaka moku'āina.

Nā lātoma, nā'ātoma, o ka i maupaʻa he'ā piha me kiʻekiʻe nuʻa. Ka mea, kokoke kōkua ma muli o kā lākou mau hoahanau hoʻomoana me ka mahalo i nā (particles), a ua paa pu ma intermolecular AaOIeIOUIeXAOAaIN. Ka mamao ma waena o nā nā lātoma o ka puaʻa hiwa paʻa i loko o kekahi mauʻaoʻao ua kapaia ke aniani puka olu oia i aiao. Ka 'ole o ka waiwai a me kona symmetry IeXAaAeAaIEN he iiiaanoaa ana o ka waiwai e like me huina'ine poe, cleavage a me optics. I ka paku ole ia i paa i lawa ka nui koa, i kēia mau ano e e oi a emi hehiʻana. A pau keia paa amenable koena deformation.

ʻO nā'ātoma a paa kino oscillate, i mea ku pono i ka'āina hoʻoili o ka thermal ikehu. No ka mea, e negligible, ka mea hiki wale ke malama ma lalo o keʻena hoʻokolohua ana. Ke hakakino 'ole o nā puaʻa hiwa pili aloha ia kona waiwai.

I ka like o ka puaʻa hiwa

Waiwai waiwai o kēia mau mea, i ko lakou mea e like ai me ka huna noi aʻo likeʻole nā māhele o lalo o ka paa moku'āina ke kālaikūlohea.

No ka mea like hoʻohana: Radio spectroscopy, mall Ka Ikepili hoʻohana 'X-kukuna a me nā ki ina hana like. No laila, hoʻopaʻa haʻawina no ka me mechanical, kino ai a me ka thermal waiwai o ka puaʻa hiwa. I ka paakiki, stress ia'ku, tensile ikaika, pae hou 'haʻawina Pono Ha awina. Ua pili kēia 'ano me ka ke kālaikūlohea o ka puaʻa hiwa. Aia o kekahi mea nui ke kālā no 'epekema. E hoʻopaʻa haʻawina nouanoao? A synthesizing hou waiwai e paa ana ia paa moku'āina kemika.

hiʻona puaʻa hiwa

Pūʻulu ka noi mawaho huina'ine paa nā'ātoma hoʻoholo na mea he nui o kona waiwai, no ka laʻana, uila. Aia nō 5 papa o ia mau kino. Ka mea, ua kau aku ke kaumaha ma muli o ka 'ano o nā'ātoma.

• Ionic, walaʻauʻana ano o i mea no ka mana o electrostatic attraction. Kona helehelena: noʻonoʻo a me ka omo o ka malamalama ma ka welaʻula māhele 'āina. Ma haʻahaʻa ana wela, i ka ionic hoopaa ua wehewehe aku ma ka haʻahaʻa uila conductivity. An laʻana o ia i kekahi mea o ka paʻakai paakai o hydrochloricʻakika (NaCl).
• Covalent lawe mai i ka lilo ana o ka huina'ine mau, a e pili ana i nā nā'ātoma. Oia ka loulou ua maheleia i: hookahi (hookahi), kaulua a me ka Triple. Kēia mau inoa hōʻike i ke alo o ka huina'ine hui (1, 2, 3). Kaulua a me ka Triple paa ana i kapaʻia o kekahi mau. Aia i kekahi mahele o ka pae. No laila, ke kaumaha ma muli o ka huina'ine nuʻa o ka makana o ka noho kaʻawale Polar a me ka nonpolar hoopaa. Ka mua ua hanaʻia e okoa nā'ātoma, a me ka lua - like. Oia i ka paa ana o ka mea, examples o i mea - he daimana (C) a me ka silikone (Si), wehewehe aku ma kona pa apŘ. Most paa nā pōaka mea pono i ka covalent hoopaa.
• Metal i hanaʻia ma ka hoʻohuiʻia i ka valence electrons o nā'ātoma. E like me ka hopena, aia no he huina huina'ine ao i ua hoʻoneʻe ma lalo o ka aoao o ka pila nui anakahi uila. Metal hoopaa ua hana ka wā o ka ka ponaʻana nā'ātoma loa. I ka mea hiki ke E lūlū mai electrons mea. He nui ke hooheheeia, luna 'i huiʻia o keia mea i paa ai ua hana ka paa moku'āina o ka mea. Ano he kumu hoʻohālike: paʻakai, barium, Aluminum, keleawe, ke gula. Ole-mea hao i huiʻia nō nā kēia: AlCr _2, Ca ₂ cu, cu ₅ Zn _8. Waiwai me ka mea hiki ke hooheheeia ka ponaʻana (ke hooheheeia) e like me ka physical waiwai. Ka mea, i e kinowai (Hg), palupalu (Na, K), nui paʻakikī (W, Nb).
• Hakakino i kupu mai ana ma nā pōaka mea i hanaʻia, ke hoʻokaʻawale nā lātoma o ka mea. Ua Ua wehewehe aku ma ka wahi i wāhiʻia ma waena o nā lātoma me Aʻohe huina'ine nuʻa. Max e kuhikuhi ana nā'ātoma i loko o kēia mau nā pōaka mea nui. Ma ka ia nā lātoma ka mea, ua o Laielohelohe i kekahi i kekahi nāwaliwali wale intermolecular attraction. Ia mea ke kumu o nā loulou ma waena o ia e hoopuni luku ma ka wela. Na wahi i pili ma waena o nā nā'ātoma'opi nui aku pilikia. Hakakino hoopaa Ua maheleia i kohoʻia, a me ka lakou hoopuehu hoʻokomo. An kumu o ia ka paa waiwai o methane.
• Hydrogen, a ia lŘlŘ ma waena o ka ikaika polarized nā'ātoma a me nā lātoma o ia mea, a negatively polarized uuku huna o ka lātoma a me na wahi e ae. Mau hoahanau hiki ke wahi hau.

waiwai puaʻa hiwa

He aha e mākou i kēia lā? ʻepekema, Ua lōʻihi ua këia i ka waiwai o ka paa moku'āina 'ona. I ka paku ole ia i mahana a me ka hoʻololi 'ia. Ke hoʻololi o ke kino loli ua kapaia o ka heheʻe. Ka hou 'ana o ka p ÷ haku i ka gaseous moku'āina ua kapaia sublimation. Me ka hōʻemiʻana ka mahana ia lŘlŘ paa crystallization. Kekahi mau waiwai ma lalo o ka aoao o ke anu hoololiia a hiki i ka amorphous pae. Kēia kaʻina ua kapa vitrificationʻepekema.

I ka pae nā mahele EUIAaIN ka maloko 'ole o ka puaʻa hiwa. Ka mea kiekie loa hoonoho papa ana ia mea loaʻa iā ia kekahi o ka mahana ua kuu iho la. Ma ka lewa puʻe, a me ka wela T> 0 K kekahi waiwai i na ma ka ano, solidify. Wale helium, ka crystallization o ka i mea e pono ai i ka puʻe o 24 atm, mea i koe a hiki i keia rula.

Paa moku'āina haawi ia he okoa physical waiwai. Ka mea, e wehewehe i ka mea i ho'ākāka 'hana ana o ke kino ma lalo o ka aoao o kekahi kula a me nā koa. I kŰia mau mea e māheleʻia i loko o nā pūʻulu. 3 anao? Aou waiū papa hana e like me ekolu 'ano o ka ikehu (me mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic a). Alaila ka mea, i kahiʻekolu pūʻulu o physical waiwai o ka puaʻa hiwa.

• Mechanical waiwai e pili pū ana i ka stress a me ka deformation o kino. E like me kēia mau ana hoʻohālike, ua mahele ia i ka puaʻa hiwa i loko o laholio, rheological, ka ikaika a me ka 'ike loea. Ke koena o ke kino hoopaa mai ai i kona helehelena, akā, ka mea hiki ke hoʻololi e kekahi mawaho ikaika. Ma keia hihia ka mea, e ia o ka ea deformation (loiloi mua e nānā,ʻaʻole hoʻi), laholio (hoike i ka palapala shape) a luku (ka wā i kekahi paepae nāwaliwali aʻela / wanaao ae). E nānā i kēia mau hoʻoikaikaʻana wehewehe laholio moduli. Paa ia kaua ke pale ole wale mīkini'opihia, kona, akā, i hoʻololi ai, kihi loa a anuenue. ʻoʻoleʻa kino ikaika e pale aku i ka leo kahea o kona waiwai lukuia.
• Thermal hoikeia ma lalo o ka aoao o thermal kihapai. Kekahi o ka mea nui waiwai - heheʻe wahi, ma i ke kino pio a hiki i ke kinowai moku'āina. Ua Ua malama i ka mea pōaka puaʻa hiwa. Amorphous kino lilo latent wela o ke kuʻi nukeliu, e like me kā lākou hoʻololi i ke kinowai moku'āina ka wā o ka mahana ua hoalaia ke kiʻekiʻe. Ma ka hiki ole i kekahi wela amorphous kino haalele i kona elasticity, a lilo plasticity. Kēia moku'āina 'o ia hoʻi ka piʻi like o ko lākou aniani hoʻololi mahana. I ka paio hahana maoli nō ia lŘlŘʻoʻoleʻa kino deformation. Eia hoʻi, ia pinepine Hoʻonui i ka pono. Quantitatively, keia ano ua wehewehe aku ma ka kekahi ololi. Kino ana wela e loli ai ka ÿano waiwai e like me flowability, plasticity, naueue ole a me ka ikaika.
• Electromagnetic me ka waiū i paa microparticles lua i pele a me ka electromagnetic a ale o ka kiʻekiʻe rigidity hou pili. Mau nā noho hoao ana, a radiative waiwai.

poʻe 'ole

Ua hoʻolaha nā puaʻa hiwa a me ka ai-kapa koa 'ole. No laila, i waena o ia mau kūlana:

• Conductors, wehewehe aku i loko i ke conductivity a me ka valence auka e paa ai ano. Pela na electrons ke neʻe ma waena o ia mau mea, haawi ana i ka huna uuku ikehu. No ka conductors mea a pau ke hooheheeia. I ka ka uilaʻikena ua hana no e like me kekahi ikehu oko kino (aie i ka noa neʻe o electrons ma waena o nā mea nui a me ka mea lalo, a kiʻekiʻe Loaʻaʻia).
• Dielectrics, i mau mea e ole ano. I ka wā mawaena ma waena o ia mea oi aku ia mamua 4 eV. E hoʻomaka electrons mai ka valence e koi nui ikehu conduction koa. Mahalo i kēia mau waiwai dielectricsʻaneʻane ole-lawelawe.
• Semiconductors, wehewehe aku ma ka wa e kaawale aku o ka conduction a me ka valence auka e paa ai. I ka wā mawaena ma waena o ia mea uuku o 4 eV. No ka hoolilo ana o electrons mai ka valence a hiki i ka conduction bana koi emi ikehu ma mua o dielectrics. Pure (unalloyed a me eigenfunctions) semiconductors poorlyʻikena ua hala.

Hakakino noi i loko o nā puaʻa hiwa i kā lākou electromagnetic a waiwai.

nā waiwai

ua maheleia ka'ā a me kā lākou mauʻume mākenēki waiwai. Aia iʻekolu pūʻulu.

• Diamagnetic waiwai i hilinaʻi iki ma ke ana wela a me ka moku'āina o aggregation.
• Paramagnetic, mai ana i ke kohoʻia o ka conduction electrons a meʻume mākenēki minute o na nā'ātoma. E like me Curie lākou susceptibility emi like ana wela. Penei, ma 300 K ka mea, he 10 ^-5.
• Aʻume mākenēki kino me ka kauoha 'ole ka lōʻihi-huahelu mea o nā'ātoma. Ma nā aka wahi o ka puka olu oia i kekahi manawa hoonohonoho (particles) me kaʻume mākenēki minute. Mau puaʻa hiwa a 'ona pinepine hoʻohana i loko o kekahi spheres o kanaka haʻawina.

Ke hardest waiwai i loko o ke ano maoli

He aha mau mea? puaʻa hiwa nuʻa pili kēia hooholo i ko lakou paakiki. Ma nā makahiki, ua 'ike akula' epekema kekahi mau mea i koi ia e "ka loa mau nō kino." Most paa - ia fullerite (aniani nā lātoma me ka fullerene), i mea e pili ana i 1.5 mau manawa ka paʻakikī i ko daimana. Eia naʻe, ia mea a ianoiyuaa a i loaʻa wale nō i loko oʻuʻuku loa mea.

I ka lā, i ka hardest waiwai, a hope paha e hoʻohana 'ia ma ka hana - lonsdalite (hexagonal daimana). He mea 58% ka paʻakikī i ko daimana. Lonsdalite - allotropic nā loli o ke kalapona. Kona aniani puka olu oia i ka mea i like loa me ke daimana. Lonsdaleite aeea he 4 nā'ātoma, akā, ke daimana - 8. O ka mau hoʻohana 'ia nā pōaka i keia la o ka hardest daimana.